Shakubuku and Jihad ; a Comparison and Contrast

Previously, I compared and contrasted the Buddhist concept of padhana with the Islamic concept jihad. Both words can be translated as struggle,  striving, or endeavor; but get there via different idioms. Padhana can be very literally rendered as ‘for stabilizing.’ It is specifically a practice for stabilizing the mind in wholesome states. This is similar to the concept of jihad as an inner spiritual struggle to submit oneself, to develop  one’s faith, and to live righteously.  With padhana, the struggle is to block and abandon unwholesome mental states; while cultivating and maintaining wholesome mental states.

Whereas the cattarro padhana or fourfold struggle of Buddhism is clearly an inner  spiritual struggle; jihad is sometimes understood as an aggressive means of evangelism; a holy war to force others to submit, take faith, and live righteously. In Buddhism, there are two general ways of propagation or evangelism.  One of these is called parigrahana 攝受 {shoju}; the other is called samgrahana  折伏 {shakubuku}. 

Graha literally means ‘seize’ or ‘capture.’  The suffix -na is a congnate of -ing; is frequently used to form gerunds; and can often be expressed with -ion, -tion, or -ness.  In this context,  grahana is used figuratively to refer to opinions, views,  or beliefs, and is a rough synonym of  ditthi / drishti  見.  The prefix -pari is a cognate of peri- and means ’round about’ or around.  The sino-japanese term, shoju 攝 受,  is a compound of 攝 = assimilate and 受 = accept.  Parigrahana 攝受 is a means of persuading people to practice without refuting their wrong views.

To accept, take in; to include. Especially the broadminded acceptance of the Buddha and his dharma to bring all kinds of suffering sentient beings into the fold of the saṃgha. There is also a connotation of the open-minded acceptance of the opinions of these people as contrasted to 折伏, the Buddha’s forcing of ideological opponents into submission (Skt. saṃgraha) ~~ DDB

Sam means ‘with,’ or ‘together with.’  Samgraha, as a means of propagation, could be translated as convince, refute, or remonstrate.  Conviction –  Merriam-Webster’s sense 2 a: “the act of convincing a person of error or of compelling the admission of a truth” — is a fairy direct translation of samgrahana. It could also be rendered as refutation or remonstration, and, in some situations; scolding, rebuking, or censure.  The sino-japanese term,  Shakubuku 折伏,  is  a compound word that consists of 折 = to break, subdue, [cause to] submit and 伏 = [cause to] bow down, prostrate.

In Buddhist use,  samgrahana  折伏 is usually about refuting mistaken ideas, through clear reasoning,  and intellectually forcing those who hold wrong views to honestly admit their errors.  A good example is found in the Culs Saccaka Sutta.

This discourse, given at Vesali, gives an account of the debate between the Buddha and Saccaka the wandering ascetic on the subject of atta. Saccaka maintained that rupa, vedana, sanna, sankhara and vinnana were one’s atta. It was atta which enjoyed the fruits of good deeds and suffered the consequences of bad deeds. The Buddha refuted his theory, pointing out that none of the khandhas was atta each being subjected to the laws of anicca, dukkha, and anatta, and not amenable to anyone’s control. Saccaka had to admit his defeat in the presence of his followers.

MN 35: Culasaccaka Sutta (The Shorter Discourse to Saccaka)

However, at some point, Saccaka falls silent, and refuses to answer the Buddha’s questions, even after three reasonable requests; which is a  violation of classical brahmodya rules of debate. At this point, Vajrapani the Yaksha,  visible only to the Buddha and Saccaka, appears above Saccaka holding a vajra — a flaming hammer or thunderbolt, and threatens to split his head into seven pieces; if he does not answer after three requests. The same image is also seen in the  Ambattha Sutta — Pride Humbled.

This visual imagery is also adapted in the Lotus Sutra, where Vajjrapati’s role is assumed by the Yakshini 夜叉 {yasha} Hariti 鬼子母神 {kishimojin} her and her ten Rakshasi  daughters 十羅刹女 {jurasetsunyo}.

“If there are those who fail to heed our spells and trouble and disrupt the preachers of the Law, their heads will split into seven pieces like the branches of the arjaka.”

The Lotus Sutra as Translated by Burton Watson Chapter Twenty-six: Dharani

Moreover, the Buddha, on very rare occasions, spoke harshly to those who behaved poorly.  One example was his rebuke of Devadatta.

“I would not even hand over the Sangha to Sariputta or Moggallana, let alone to you, you who should be coughed out like spittle.” ~~ Ajatasattu and Devadatta

In addition, it is well  known that Nichiren Shonin was an advocate of shakubuku and sometimes used harsh language when remonstrating with the ruling Hojo Regency of Kamakura Era Japan.  More recently, the Soka Gakkai  developed a reputation for a deploying a  combative, aggressive. and coercive style of propagation.  Some use this an excuse to set aside the practice of khanti / kshanti 忍 or 忍辱;  Buddhist forbearance or tolerance defined as patience with offensive people or actions that do not really deserve patience.

For these and other reasons,  shakubuku or samgraha is sometimes wrongly associated with enmity and intolerance. As previously noted, the word jihad is, too often, associated with aggressive and even violent forms of propagation. Some have suggested that aggressive shakubuku might be comparable to  violent applications of jihad, crusades, or so-called holy war.  I suppose it could, but I think this would be corruption or perversion of the Buddha’s intention.

Even when it became necessary to scold an unrepentant individual, the Buddha almost always remained equanimous, polite,  and cheerful.  At any rate, samgrahana or shakubuku  折伏 can be best defined as a method of propagation in which wrong views are clearly exposed and refuted. There is no reason for this to turn into a ‘cold war’ or  an incessant battle of words. After three failed attempts at rational  persuasion,   it might be time to move on cheerfully and remain good Dharma friends, despite differences of view.

Padhana and Jihad; a Comparison and Contrast

I am told that jihad can have different meanings in different contexts.  Evidently, the word jihad is a kind of action or verbal noun called an infinitive. It literally means ‘he struggles.’  In spoken Arabic it simply means  struggle — any sort of strenuous effort, endeavor, or striving.  Some take it, in a religious context,  to mean an aggressive external holy war against infidels.  Others take it as a threefold internal spiritual struggle with oneself; to submit oneself,  to develop faith, and to live righteously. I found the latter interpretation kind of interesting. There are two  somewhat similar Buddhist terms; padhana / pradhana, and pahana / prahana.  These words are a kind of action noun called a gerund; a verb ending with the suffix  -ing  that is used as a noun.

Padhana or pradhana is translated as struggle, exertion, endeavor, striving, and so on. I should add that it has other meanings in other contexts. In the context of the Eightfold Path;  padhana  refers to the meditation practice or spiritual exercise called  samma vayama / samyak vyayama, commonly translated as Right Effort.  Right effort is explained in detail as catarro sammappadhana / samyak catur pradhana;  the fourfold right struggle.

The word consists of two parts;  pradha and -na.  Pradha means ‘to strive.’  It can broken down into two; the prefix pra-, plus the verb dhi.  Pra- is a cognate of pre-, pro-, per,  and fore. It can have several meanings. In this case, it means for, in the sense of purpose or use. Dhi- means to hold, to fasten, to firm up, and so on.  The suffix -na is a cognate of -ing, and is commonly used to form gerunds.

Pahana / prahana is the second of the four struggles.  The word consists  of the prefix pra, the verb  ha, and the suffix -na. ‘ Ha’ means to abandon, to give up, to relinquish,  to eliminate, to sever, and so on.  In Buddhism, pahana padhana  means the spiritual struggle to abandon unwholesome mental states; such as enmity, intolerance, greed, or delusion, that have already arisen.

At any rate, the Buddhist concept of the fourfold padhana is similar to jihad in the sense of the third spiritual struggle with oneself; the struggle to live righteously. Buddhism places primary importance on the cetana, the internal mental state that motivates deeds,  over the the external action. For example, superficial acts of charity, with the egoistic aim of receiving social credit, or the prideful desire to feel superior to others; would not be wholesome. The mental state of authentic compassion has to be present.

Moreover, from a Buddhist perspective,  there is no such thing as righteous indignation.  The correct Buddhist response to injustice or insults is not to be offended and arouse enmity.  Instead, one should block any dormant enmity, relinquish any ill feelings that have already arisen, cultivate khanti / kshanti {forgiving tolerance} as an antidote, and then strive to maintain a equanimous,  discerning mind rooted in cheerful kindness.   On the other hand, the calm and selective use of necessary force,  provided it is  rooted in   compassion for all involved,  and applied with discerning wisdom, with the objective of preventing immediate harm, could sometimes be wholesome.

• cattarimani or cattaro sammappadhanani  / catur samyak-pradhana
  四正勤 {si zheng qin / shi shogon} :  Fourfold Right Struggle; to overcome mental afflictions / unwholesome mental states.
• catarro sammapahana  四正斷 {si zheng duan / shi shodan} : Fourfold Elimination [of mental  afflictions]
• pahana / prahana 斷:  Abandonment or elimination  of mental afflictions that have already arisen.

Karma and Causality

“A sutra states that both the crow’s blackness and the heron’s whiteness are actually the deep stains of their past karma.” — Nichiren, Letter from Sado

Taken literally, this statement reflects a common misunderstanding of Karma, as taught by the Buddha.

Karma {from the verbal root kri, kha = to put, make, do} does refer to a process of causality. However, Karma is only one kind of cause and effect. The Buddha was rather clear that karma is rooted in cetana {ceta = mental state + na = the gerundive suffix -ing; motive, intention}. A cetana is the basic unit of volitional motivation. So, karma refers only to causality involving volition; willful or intentional actions.

While the quoted sentence might be construed figuratively, we know the coloration of birds really has nothing to do with volitional deeds they committed in their past lives. The Pali commentaries inferred five processes of causality from the Suttas. The Buddha did not explicitly use these terms. However, the concepts are implicit in the Suttas. Moreover, they are pretty much consistent with modern science.

The process are called niyamas. The prefix ni- is similar to ex- and generally means something like ‘out of.’ In some cases, it can mean ‘into; or can be an intensifier. Yama means something like control, regulate, or restraint. In Patanjali Yoga, yama and niyama refer to rules of conduct. In our present context, niyama indicates the processes that regulate causation. The Panca Niyama are five process of causality are:

1. Utu Niyama or Inorganic Processes: Utu simply means non-living or inorganic. In ancient India, this was about the interaction of four basic physical or elements; earth or solids, water or liquid, wind or gases, and fire or energy. Today, we know these are not really elements, but the analysis still has some merit. In modern terms, Utu Niyama refers to processes studied in the fields of geology, inorganic chemistry, climatology, and so on.

2. Bija Niyama or Genetic Heredity: Bija means seminal, germ, or seed. In modern terms, bija niyama refers to the fields of biology, organic chemistry, genetics, and so on. The crow’s blackness and the heron’s whiteness are actually the result of bija niyama; their genetic inheritance.

3. Karma Niyama or Volitional Moral Causality: I already mentioned that karma is rooted in cetana, or basic motive. Buddhism divides cetanas into the categories of kushala or wholesome, akushala or unwholesome, and neutral. That involves morality. My understanding is that cetanas become habitual or patterned. One’s habitual pattern of motives is called cetana samskara or volitional conditioning, and constitutes the fourth skandha. Karma is ‘created’ by three kinds of conduct, actions, or causes; volitional conceptual thought {manas}, volitional speech, and volitional bodily deeds. The Buddha taught the every such volitional is a cause {hetu} and invariably produces an effect or fruit {vipaka}.

Then Ven. Angulimala, early in the morning, having put on his robes and carrying his outer robe & bowl, went into Savatthi for alms. Now at that time a clod thrown by one person hit Ven. Angulimala on the body, a stone thrown by another person hit him on the body, and a potsherd thrown by still another person hit him on the body. So Ven. Angulimala — his head broken open and dripping with blood, his bowl broken, and his outer robe ripped to shreds — went to the Blessed One. The Blessed One saw him coming from afar and on seeing him said to him: “Bear with it, brahman! Bear with it! The fruit of the kamma that would have burned you in hell for many years, many hundreds of years, many thousands of years, you are now experiencing in the here-&-now!”– The Buddha, the Angulimala Sutta

According to the seed that’s sown,
So is the fruit you reap therefrom,
Doer of good will gather good,
Doer of evil, evil reaps,
Down is the seed and thou shalt taste the fruit thereof.
– The Buddha, the Nibbedhika Sutta

4. Dhamma / Dharma Niyama or Laws of Phenomena: Dharma can mean phenomena in general; usually transliterated as dharmas with a little ‘d,’ or the Buddha Dharma; which is usually capitalized. I have seen dharma niyama taken both ways. A few take it to mean the power of Dharma. Most, including myself, take this to mean the former, corresponding to the Laws of Physics; such as Gravity, Conservation of Mass-Energy, Conservation of Momentum, Laws of Thermodynamics, and so on.

5. Citta Niyama or Power of Mind: Note that Citta is an inclusive term for the mind and spirituality and is not limited ti the brain functions {manas}. Some construe this to this to mean the processes covered by Psychology; the Behavioral Sciences. I agree, if that includes parapsychology. Citta Niyama would include conditioning {sankharas / samskaras}, but also various powers of the mind that are beyond the limits of modern science. This covers the a-causal; such as synchronicity, as well the supra-causal and what appear to be miracles.

The concept of Panca Niyama, or Five Processes of Causality, provides a much more complete and rational view of cause and effect than blaming everything on Karma. Not everything that happens is due to Volitional Moral Causality. However, the Buddha did teach that every volitional action has a consequence.

Wholesome and unwholesome cetanas or motives will arise. It is up to us to either block & abandon them; or cultivate and maintain them. If we wish to change our karma for the better; then we can do the former. Meanwhile, we can endeavor to cultivate and maintain wholesome cetanas. That does not mean we get a free pass for bad deeds done in the past. Note that Angulimala, the gruesome serial killer that repented and reformed, still experienced his karmic retribution, albeit in a greatly lightened manner.

Also, dukkha or pain is inherent in Natural Law. Everyone experiences bad things that are just part of life and have nothing to do with karma. Moreover, changing our karma, via ethical conduct, is only entry level Dharma. The better part of Buddhism transcends karma, and is about Citta Bhavana; cultivation of one’s mind and spirituality.

Dwelling on the back roads by the rivers of our memories.

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iirc, this was started for those who missed their e-sangha fix. We formerly had a Nichiren Sangha at E-Sangha. Others are welcome to join.

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